DERECHO TRIBUTARIO Y CONSTITUCIONAL DERECHO Y NUEVAS TECNOLOGIAS ACTUALIDAD JURIDICA Y ECONOMICA MEDIOAMBIENTE
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Sunday, January 23, 2011
STEDH "AFFAIRE DI BELMONTE C.ITALIE"
STEDH "AFFAIRE DI BELMONTE C.ITALIE"
39. La matière fiscale n'échappe pas pour autant à tout contrôle de la Cour, puisqu'elle doit vérifier si l'article 1 du Protocole no 1 a fait l'objet d'une application correcte. A cet égard, elle rappelle que le second alinéa de cette disposition doit se lire à la lumière du principe consacré par la première phrase de l'article. Il s'ensuit qu'une mesure d'ingérence doit ménager un « juste équilibre » entre les exigences de l'intérêt général de la communauté et les impératifs de la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux de l'individu (Tre Traktörer AB c. Suède, 7 juillet 1989, § 59, série A no 159).
40. Par conséquent, l'obligation financière née du prélèvement d'impôts ou de contributions peut méconnaître la garantie consacrée par cette disposition si elle impose à la personne en cause une charge excessive ou porte fondamentalement atteinte à sa situation financière (Di Belmonte (no 2), décision précitée).
41. Par ailleurs, il appartient en premier lieu aux autorités nationales de décider du type d'impôts ou de contributions qu'il convient de lever. Les décisions en ce domaine impliquent normalement une appréciation des problèmes politiques, économiques et sociaux que la Convention laisse à la compétence des Etats parties, car les autorités internes sont manifestement mieux placées que la Cour pour apprécier ces problèmes. Les Etats parties disposent donc en la matière d'un large pouvoir d'appréciation (Gasus Dosier et Fördertechnik Gmbh c. Pays-Bas, 23 février 1995, § 60, série A no 306-B, et The National & Provincial Building Society, the Leeds Permanent Building Society and the Yorkshire Building Society c. Royaume-Uni, 23 octobre 1997, §§ 80-82, Recueil 1997-VII).
42. La Cour estime que la loi no 413 de 1991 s'inscrit dans cette marge d'appréciation de l'Etat, et que, par conséquent, elle ne saurait être considérée en tant que telle comme arbitraire. Il est vrai que, adoptée le 30 décembre 1991, elle a été appliquée au cas d'espèce bien qu'entrée en vigueur après l'expropriation du terrain du requérant (15 mars 1983 – paragraphe 10 ci-dessus) et après la date à laquelle l'arrêt de la cour d'appel de Catane fixant le montant de l'indemnité d'expropriation est devenu définitif (8 mai 1991 – paragraphe 14 ci-dessus). Cependant, elle était déjà en vigueur lorsque, les 27 mai 1992 et 4 janvier 1995, le requérant a encaissé les deux tranches de l'indemnité en question (paragraphes 17 et 18 ci-dessus). En tout état de cause, une éventuelle application rétroactive de la loi no 413 de 1991 au cas du requérant n'aurait pas constitué per se une violation de l'article 1 du Protocole no 1, car cette disposition n'interdit pas, en tant que telle, l'application rétroactive d'une loi fiscale (M.A. et autres c. Finlande (déc.), no 27793/95, 10 juin 2003, et Di Belmonte (no 2), décision précitée).
43. La question qui se pose est celle de savoir si, dans les circonstances concrètes de l'affaire, l'application de l'article 11 de la loi no 413 de 1991 a imposé au requérant une charge excessive.
44. A cet égard, la Cour observe d'abord qu'avant l'entrée en vigueur de la loi no 413 de 1991, les indemnités d'expropriation n'étaient soumises à aucune imposition fiscale (paragraphe 27 ci-dessus).
45. De plus, elle relève que la loi no 413 de 1991 est entrée en vigueur plus de sept mois après la date à laquelle l'arrêt de la cour d'appel de Catane fixant le montant de l'indemnité d'expropriation était devenu définitif (8 mai 1991). Elle estime par conséquent que le retard de l'administration publique dans l'exécution de cet arrêt a eu une influence déterminante sur l'application du nouveau régime fiscal. En effet, l'indemnité accordée au requérant n'aurait pas été assujettie à l'impôt prévu par la nouvelle législation fiscale si l'exécution de l'arrêt avait été régulière et ponctuelle (voir, a contrario, Di Belmonte (no 2), décision précitée, où l'arrêt fixant le montant de l'indemnité d'expropriation n'avait acquis l'autorité de la chose jugée que vingt jours avant l'entrée en vigueur de la loi no 413 de 1991). La réticence de l'administration à donner exécution à l'arrêt de la cour d'appel est par ailleurs confirmée par les nombreuses démarches que le requérant a dû entamer auprès du commissaire ad hoc et du TAR afin d'obtenir le paiement intégral de sa créance (paragraphes 16-18 ci-dessus).
46. A la lumière de ce qui précède, le Cour estime qu'en l'espèce, l'application de la loi no 413 de 1991 a rompu le « juste équilibre » devant régner entre les exigences de l'intérêt général de la communauté et les impératifs de la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux de l'individu.
(…)
55. En l'espèce, la violation constatée par la Cour découle de l'application de l'impôt (à hauteur de 20% de l'indemnité d'expropriation due au requérant) prévu par la loi no 413 de 1991, application provoquée par le retard dans l'exécution de l'arrêt de la cour d'appel de Catane. La restitution de la somme prélevée à titre d'impôt (525 934,99 EUR) placerait donc l'héritier du requérant dans la situation où le défunt se serait trouvé si la violation n'avait pas eu lieu.
56. Etant donné que le caractère adéquat d'un dédommagement risque de diminuer si le paiement de celui-ci fait abstraction d'éléments susceptibles d'en réduire la valeur, tel l'écoulement d'un laps de temps considérable (Raffineries grecques Stran et Stratis Andreadis c. Grèce, 9 décembre 1994, § 82, série A no 301‑B), ce montant devra être actualisé pour compenser les effets de l'inflation. Il faudra aussi l'assortir d'intérêts susceptibles de compenser, au moins en partie, le long laps de temps qui s'est écoulé depuis l'application de l'impôt litigieux. Aux yeux de la Cour, ces intérêts doivent correspondre à l'intérêt légal simple appliqué au capital progressivement réévalué (Guiso-Gallisay précité, § 105).
57. Compte tenu de ces éléments et statuant en équité, la Cour estime raisonnable d'accorder à l'héritier du requérant la somme de 1 100 000 EUR plus tout montant pouvant être dû à titre d'impôt sur cette somme."
La STEDH cuenta con un voto particular concordante del Juez húngaro Sajó:
OPINION CONCORDANTE DU JUGE SAJÓ
(Traduction)
J"e souscris au constat de violation de l'article 1 du Protocole no 1 en l'espèce. Cependant, pour moi, cette violation est constituée par le fait même que l'indemnisation accordée n'a été en l'espèce équitable.
(…)
Historiquement, l'indemnisation pleine et entière a été requise, pour éviter que les gouvernements soient incités à confisquer des biens privés à des fins politiques ou privées. Le risque que les pouvoirs publics abusent de leurs prérogatives sous le prétexte de servir l'intérêt général diminue lorsque de tels actes entraînent d'importantes conséquences budgétaires.
(…)
La propriété est une institution fondatrice de la démocratie et de l'autonomie personnelle. Tout ordre juridique prenant au sérieux le droit fondamental à la propriété privée doit empêcher que la protection de la propriété ne soit subordonnée, au moins dans les affaires ordinaires, à l'importance alléguée de l'intérêt général. Pareille allégation restreindrait la protection conventionnelle de la propriété pour la raison suivante. En effet, eu égard à sa nature subsidiaire et à sa position internationale, la Cour n'est pas vraiment en mesure d'apprécier et de contrôler les allégations et excuses fondées sur l'intérêt général et, en reconnaissant la pertinence de telles allégations dans des affaires ordinaires, elle devrait les accueillir sans autre examen. Ce faisant, elle perdrait le degré de contrôle approprié qu'elle exerce à l'heure actuelle en la matière.
Les termes employés par la Cour (indemnisation intégrale, pleine et entière, équitable, adéquate, excessive) ne revêtent aucun caractère talismanique. Ce qui compte est de définir quel est le montant (en fonction du prix du marché) qui remplit la fonction de protection de la propriété en tant que droit fondamental conventionnel. De plus, ce qui importe est que ces expressions soient liées à une certaine forme d’objectivité empêchant l’arbitraire judiciaire et l’assentiment à des jugements ad hoc rassurants mais intuitifs."
Friday, January 21, 2011
CUANTIA LITIGIOSA Y RECURSO DE CASACION
Dichas modificaciones son, resumidamente, las siguientes:
1) Elevación de la cuantía del pleito que da derecho a interponer el recurso de casación desde los actuales 150.253,02 euros a los 800.000 euros propuestos. Es decir, un incremento de 5,32 veces de la suma que daría derecho al acceso a la casación.
2) Introducción de un nuevo motivo de inadmisión del recuso de casación contenido en el artículo 93.2.e) de la Ley 29/1998 cuando el asunto carezca de interés casacional “por plantear cuestiones reiteradamente resueltas por el Tribunal Supremo”.Dicho motivo, y los restantes del citado apartado e), serán aplicables incluso a los recursos de cuantía superior a 800.000 euros (antes eran solo estaban afectados por dicha inadmisibilidad los recursos de “cuantía indeterminada”).
En todas las materias contenciosas, pero especialmente en las tributarias, dichos límites (dejando aparte el también propuesto para la apelación) darían lugar a que una gran cantidad de recursos cuenten con un solo grado de jurisdicción, sin posibilidad de una “segunda instancia”.
Los motivos aducidos para la propuesta son el elevado incremento del número de recursos de casación y la necesidad de preservar la sostenibilidad del sistema. Dicha necesidad no se discute, pero los mecanismos arbitrados ofrecen serias dudas de que sean suficientemente respetuosos con los derechos de los ciudadanos, así como de que sean una herramienta eficaz para corregir los problemas abordados por la propuesta.
Por empezar con los problemas de eficacia:
1) En un sistema basado en el equilibrio y control entre diferentes órganos judiciales, no es una solución eficaz que determinados órganos jurisdiccionales conozcan con antelación que un determinado fallo suyo no va a está sujeto a ningún control posterior por parte de un tribunal superior. Ello solo elimina gravemente las posibilidades de control (legal) de la actuación de dicho órgano y la calidad de sus resoluciones.
2) El problema anterior es indirectamente reconocido por la propia propuesta, cuando introduce la posibilidad de que el Tribunal Supremo inadmita una casación cuando el asunto carezca de interés casacional “por plantear cuestiones reiteradamente resueltas por el Tribunal Supremo”.Podría pensarse que el sentido es el contrario, pero en realidad el motivo podría dar lugar a la inadmisión de casaciones que planteen la aplicación de la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo inaplicada por los tribunales inferiores. Se entendería así que ésta no es una cuestión propiamente casacional. Y seguramente no lo es, pero el ciudadano tiene derecho a que tenga una solución, y no va a favor del sistema sino en contra del mismo que se suprima el remedio procesal para remediarla y no se establezca ningún sistema alternativo (recurso extraordinario o como quiera llamársele).
3) Con independencia del efectivo alcance del nuevo motivo de inadmisión, para las sentencias dictadas por la Audiencia Nacional en litigios con cuantía inferior a 800.000 euros que inapliquen la jurisprudencia reiterada del Tribunal Supremo no habrá en ningún caso recurso de casación. Este funcionamiento anormal, que no cabe en absoluto excluir, solo contaría con la posibilidad de un eventual recurso de amparo. Ello trasladaría el problema de nivel, pero no lo solucionaría porque el amparo, a su vez, exige una “especial trascendencia constitucional” y el Tribunal Constitucional, con su también elevada carga de asuntos, decidirá, previsiblemente, que dicha cuestión no reviste caso por caso carácter general, ni tiene por tanto “trascendencia constitucional”.
Siguiendo con los problemas de justicia, la propuesta ofrecería, entre otras, estas importantes tachas:
1) Beneficia a la “potentior” persona que es la Administración tributaria porque disminuye su control jurisdiccional.¿Alguien piensa que los contribuyentes que avalan deudas para recurrir lo hacen simplemente para retrasar su ingreso, a pesar de que está sujeto a compensación por el correspondiente interés de de demora?. Al igual que en el sistema de control intrajudicial, “juzgar a la Administración” debería contribuir a que ésta administrara mejor y con sujeción a la legalidad.¿Tiene la propuesta alguna relación con la crisis de las finanzas públicas?.
2) En un sistema ideal en el que hubiera medios para conocer de dos litigios y de un solo recurso contra su resolución, es difícil que alguien considerara que los recursos públicos para la resolución del único recurso se asignen íntegramente a las partes en el litigio de mayor cuantía. El “remedio” es, en el fondo, un “impuesto” adicional y, además, un impuesto regresivo sin corrección alguna. Para muchos contribuyentes, un litigio inferior a 800.000 euros, y también uno inferior a 150.253,02 euros, puede ser una cuestión que afecte gravemente a su patrimonio y comprometa su libertad. Si los medios de que dispone el sistema para administrar justicia son limitados, el propio criterio de justicia debería imponer una distribución menos “desigualitaria” de los mismos. La principal alternativa sería la fijación legal de un “techo” de casaciones y de un sistema de asignación aleatoria de los derechos al recurso (esto también evitaría el problema de que el órgano inferior conociera con anterioridad que no existe recurso contra su sentencia), con la posibilidad además de que dicho derecho se pudiera transmitir. Esta solución aplicaría la misma técnica conocida en otros problemas de sobreutilización de recursos comunes. El problema es el mismo tanto si se trata del aire como si se trata del recurso común del sistema judicial. La técnica legal se conoce como “limitación y comercializacion” o “cap and trade”.
3) Al margen de todo lo anterior, la propuesta podría infringir derechos contenidos en la Constitución, en el Convenio de Derechos Humanos y Libertades Fundamentales y en la Carta de Derechos de la Unión Europea por lo siguiente:
l Impide el derecho a un doble grado de jurisdicción en relación con las sanciones tributarias y de otro tipo que por su gravedad debe considerarse que tienen, con arreglo a los criterios “Engel” (TEDH), la naturaleza “penal” que exige dicho doble nivel (art.2 del Protocolo 7 del CEDH).
l Puede dar lugar a un privación desproporcionada del derecho a la propiedad, porque una limitación del acceso a los recursos que perjudica sistemáticamente a los litigios de cuantía más baja sería muy sospechosa de introducir un “sistema de administración de justicia dual”, que no puede considerarse compatible con el “interés general” por excluir de las mayores garantías, la mayor parte de las veces, a la mayoría de ciudadanos con menor capacidad. El artículo 1 del Protocolo 1 del Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos exige que las leyes “reglamenten el uso de los bienes de acuerdo con el interés general”.Noción añeja, pero que exigiría planteamientos más innovadores que los del Anteproyecto.
Debido seguramente a que afecta solo a los ciudadanos y no a los conflictos de éstos con la Administración, la propuesta de reforma de la casación civil es más respetuosa con la justicia. La “libertad de los modernos” fue, sin embargo, una libertad conquistada a la Administración. La misma se encuentra en franca regresión en todos sus frentes.
Sunday, January 16, 2011
MAS CRISIS DE LA DEUDA
Mientras los responsables europeos vuelven a rehacer las cuentas sobre las cifras necesarias para parar la crisis de la deuda, resulta pertinente el diagnóstico de Eichengreen ("La elección de Alemania") desde lel otro lado del atlántico sobre las alternativas reales en relación con dicha crisis.Tampoco es probable que vaya a ser escuchado esta vez:
“EU leaders, led by Ms. Merkel, have been nothing if not consistent in addressing this danger. They have consistently refused to acknowledge it. If the crisis countries fail to meet their budgetary targets, EU leaders insist, then they should impose deeper spending cuts – this despite the fact that deeper cuts will mean even slower growth. If there are going to be further bailouts when the existing rescue fund, the European Financial Stability Facility or EFSF, expires, then this should be conditional on private investors taking losses – this despite the fact that heavily indebted countries will then find it impossible to roll over their debts.
This stance of unmitigated denial may be consistent, but it is not coherent. It can only lead to disorderly defaults, bank distress, and contagion to yet additional countries. If German policy makers think their economy can remain an island of prosperity in such stormy financial seas, then they have forgotten how to navigate.
The feasible alternatives are two:
1) European leaders can allow countries like Greece and Ireland to write down their already heavy debts. They can use some of the resources of the EFSF to collateralize or provide guarantees on the new “discount bonds” the Greek and Irish governments offer investors in exchange for existing obligations. Their debts will again become sustainable, and their governments will be able to play by the new, more demanding rules put in place in 2013.
But this will also mean losses for banks in Germany and elsewhere. Shareholders will be unhappy if those banks have to go out and raise more capital. Taxpayers will be unhappy if the banks find themselves unable to do so and governments are forced to inject public funds. No wonder that this course does not appeal to Ms. Merkel and Mr. Sarkozy.
2) Alternatively, the EU can re-think the terms of its rescue packages. To give Greece and Ireland fighting chance, it can reduce the 6 per cent interest rate they are being charged on their IMF-EU loans. It can triple the size of the EFSF to enable it to provide cheap and ample funding for Spain when the time comes. Issuing “e-bonds” backed by the full faith and credit of EU member states as a group and allowing the crisis countries to exchange their existing debt for these new securities up to some limit, say 60 per cent of GDP, would be another way of achieving the same goal.
The EU will also have to relax the rules governing the extension of assistance when the EFSF is replaced by a permanent entity, the European Stability Mechanism, in 2013. It can authorize the ESM to lend not just to countries that pass a “rigorous debt sustainability analysis,” as the German government has proposed, but more freely. It can authorize the ESM to lend at concessional rates. It can back away from the idea that ESM loans will have seniority, a situation that makes it more likely that other claims will have to be restructured.
This would represent a transfer of resources from Germany and the other members of the EU core to the crisis countries. It would be the first step toward a fiscal union in which there were ongoing payments from rich to poor European countries. Again, this is not something that will appeal to decision makers in Germany and the other members of core Europe. The cost, approximately 3 per cent of the combined GDP of Germany and France, would be equivalent to the cost of recapitalizing those two countries’ banks.
But that both feasible alternatives are unappealing does not relieve European leaders of having to choose. Pretending that doing nothing is also a feasible alternative leads only to chaos.”
Barry Eichengreen is George C. Pardee and Helen N. Pardee Professor of Economics and Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley. His book, Exorbitant Privilege: The Rise and Fall of the Dollar and the Future of the International Monetary System, has just been published by Oxford University Press.
Saturday, January 8, 2011
LA CRISIS DE LA DEUDA EUROPEA
SIGUEN EXTRACTOS AMPLIOS DEL ANALISIS EN INGLES DEL CITADO AUTOR
DE LA PARTE 1 (4 DE ENERO DE 2011):
Misión Interrumpida
(…)
“As of August 2010, the level of ECB funding was as follows:
Euro (billions)
% of Deposits
% of Gross Domestic Product
Greece
96.1
26
40
Ireland
95.1
14
60
Portugal
50.1
15
30
Spain
119.0
5
11
Following the Irish crisis in the second half of 2010, the funding demands on the ECB have increased. Ireland’s borrowing from the ECB has reached Euro 136 billion (86% of Gross Deposit Product ("GDP")), around a quarter of Euro-zone member drawings on the facility.
The ECB has expressed concern about Europe’s "addicted financial groups". But with banks affected by their sovereign’s debt problems and maturing debt not being rolled over, the ECB has little option but to continue the arrangement.
The approach of the EU/ ECB assumed that the problem was temporary liquidity not solvency. The solution was to ensure that the troubled countries could continue to finance. The restoration of confidence would enable a rapid return to market financing and the status quo.
Nothing exemplified this better than the ill-conceived and poorly designed EFSF. Amongst the multiplicity of problems were the limited guarantees from Euro-zone countries and a reliance on CDO rating methodology. The preliminary analysis of the EFSF by the credit rating agencies confirmed the view that the facility was not designed for use. Close inspection also revealed that the facility was only capable of being drawn for an amount as low as Euro 250 billion, well short of the advertised Euro 750 billion. It was a pure confidence trick.
DE LA PARTE SEGUNDA (5-01-2011):
(…)
PLATOS AMARGOS
The EU and IMF are hoping that the bailouts of Greece and Ireland will restore market confidence. In combination with stronger growth, greater fiscal discipline and domestic structural reforms, they hope that the fear of default or restructuring will recede. Eventually, the troubled countries will regain access to markets. The emergency facilities and support mechanisms will be gradually unwound. While not impossible, the chances of this script playing out are minimal.
A more likely scenario is that the support measures do not work and increasingly Portugal and Spain, initially, find themselves under siege. As market access closes, they too will need bailouts straining existing arrangements, necessitating new measures. If Portugal (debt around Euro 180 billion) was to require assistance, then it will reduce the available funds in the existing EU’s bail-out mechanism. Spain (with debt of over Euro 950 billion) is simply too big to bail out using the present facilities.
Under such a scenario, available options include greater economic integration of the EU, expansion of existing arrangements or a decision to allow indebted countries to fail.
Greater economic integration would entail adoption of a common fiscal policy, encompassing strict controls on fiscal policy including tax and spending. It could also include the issue of Euro zone bonds ("E-Bonds") to finance member countries. Championed by Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourg’s Prime Minister and chairman of the Euro Zone finance ministers’ meetings, the E-Bond would lower borrowing costs for peripheral economies and facilitate access to markets.
Fiscal union would prevent default of over-indebted borrowers without necessarily addressing the fundamental problems of individual economies. The likelihood of greater fiscal union in the near term is limited, as it is unlikely that nations will surrender the required economic powers and autonomy.
The E-Bond proposal, for up to 50% of a State’s funding requirement, is unworkable given large differences in credit quality and interest rates between Euro Zone members of around 10%. The E-Bond credit support structure would resurrect the ill-fated EFSF on a larger scale.
In any case, Germany takes the view that national governments should bear responsibility for their own decisions. Germany also opposes E-Bonds, as they would increase its borrowing costs. France’s early enthusiasm for E-Bonds seems to have diminished.
The cost of full fiscal union is prohibitive, entailing between Euro 340 billion and Euro 800 billion, depending on the degree of fiscal imbalances. Much of this cost would have to be borne by Germany and other richer economies.
If Portugal and Spain experience problems, then in absence of a full fiscal union, the only available actions are further EU support or default.
There have been proposals to expand the EFSF/ ESM as needed. While Germany currently has opposed any expansion, it remains an option. Perversely, increasing the funding available to support troubled countries may signal that problems were imminent, with a resulting loss of confidence necessitating a bailout.
The ECB can increase support for the relevant countries, in the form of purchases of bonds or financing Euro Zone banks to purchase them. Interestingly, the ECB will increase its capital base, from Euro 5.76 billion to Euro 10.76 billion by end 2012, the first such increase in its 12-year history. The increase in capital allows greater support from the ECB, whilst providing reserves against potential losses.
In an extreme scenario, the ECB could simply print money, following the US Fed’s lead, to support its members, known technically as "unsterlised purchases". Such action may not be permissible under its existing rules, requiring amendments to EU treaties. It would severely damage the ECB’s already tenuous credibility and be resisted by Germany and other conservative EU countries.
"Extend and pretend" measures would allow orderly default or debt restructuring by some countries over time. It minimises losses, controlling the timing and form of restructuring. It would also minimise disruption to financial markets and solvency issues for investors and banks with large exposures.
If the EU does not agree to fiscal union or continuing support, then pressure on Portugal, Spain, Italy and Belgium may reach a tipping point, making default or restructuring the likely end game. Presumably, existing programs, such as those for Greece and Ireland, would be suspended. Governments would announce debt moratoriums, defaulting on at least some debts and forcing write downs. This would be followed by a domino effect of defaulting countries within Europe.
The defaults would affect the balance sheets of banks, potentially forcing governments, especially in Germany, France and UK to inject capital and liquidity into their banks to ensure solvency. The richer nations would still have to pay, but for the recapitalisation of their banks rather than foreign countries.
(…)
Large volumes of maturing debt mean that the test is likely to come sooner than later. The heavily indebted European sovereign states face $2.85 trillion of maturing debt in the period to 2013. Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece and Spain have bond maturities of $502 billion in 2011. The financing needs of Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Spain over the last quarter of 2010 and 2011 are Euro 320 billion, rising to Euro 712 billion if Italy is included. In addition, private sector borrower in these countries face maturities of $988 billion of corporate bonds and $200 billion of syndicated bank loans over the same period. Likelihood of low economic growth, failure to meet IMF plan targets, further banking sector problems and credit downgrades exacerbate the risk.
If Europe muddles it way through the refinancing crisis, then the expiry of existing support facilities in 2013 and the changed regime of the ESM poses new risks and may continue the instability.
DE LA PARTE TERCERA (6-01-2011):
UN CONTINENTE LEJANO
(…)
China, which contributed around 80% of total global growth in 2010, has expressed growing concern about the problems in Europe. Trade between China and the EU, its largest export market, totals around $470 billion annually, contributing a trade surplus of Euro 122 billion for China in the first nine months of 2010. Any slowdown in Europe would affect Chinese growth. China is also a major holder of Euro sovereign bonds, standing to lose significantly if problems continue. China has indicated preparedness to use some of its $2.7 trillion of foreign exchange reserves to buy bonds of countries such as Greece and Portugal.
A slowdown in China would affect commodity markets, both volumes and prices, and commodity exporters such as Australia, China and South Africa. Minutes of a 7 December 2010 from the central bank of Australia, one of the world’s best performing economies, indicated increasing concerns about developments in Europe.
A continuation of the European debt problems, especially restructuring or default of sovereign debt, would severely disrupt financial markets. Losses would create concerns about the solvency of banks, in particular European banks. In a repeat of the events of September 2008 (when Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy protection and AIG almost collapsed) and April/ May 2010 (prior to the bailout of Greece), money markets could seize up, as trust about the ability of parties to perform contracts evaporated. In turn, this volatility would feed through into the real economy, undermining the weak recovery.
Unless resolved, the European debt problems will affect currency markets and through that channel the global economy. Any breakdown in the Euro, such as the withdrawal of defaulting countries or change in the mechanism, would result in a sharp fall in the new currencies. In turn, this would, in the first instance, result in large losses to holders of debt of those countries from the devaluation.
Depending on the new arrangements, the US dollar would appreciate abbreviating the nascent American recovery. This may compound existing global imbalances and trigger further American action to weaken the dollar. Further rounds of quantitative easing are possible, setting off inflation and de-stabilising, large scale capital flows into emerging markets. In turn, the risk of protectionism, full-scale currency and trade wars would increase. A breakup of the Euro would adversely affect Germany, which has been growing strongly. A return to the Deutschemark or, more realistically, an Euro without the peripheral countries may result in a sharp appreciation of the currency, reducing German export competitiveness.
As the Australian central bank noted in its December 2010 minutes: "… the deterioration in the situation in Europe over the past month had increased the downside risks to the global economy. How this would ultimately play out, and the implications … were difficult to predict. It was possible that conditions could settle down, as they had after the episode of financial instability in May. Alternatively, an escalation of the current problems was not out of the question. If this prompted a fresh retreat from risk-taking in global financial markets, it would probably have more impact … than any trade effect."
FINAL DE LA PARTIDA
Events since the announcement of the bailout package in early 2010 have been reminiscent of 2008. Then, the optimism following bailouts of Bear Stearns and other troubled American banks produced premature. The promise of China to purchase Portuguese bonds is similar to the ill-fated investments of Asian and Middle-Eastern sovereign wealth funds in US and European banks.
Eventually with each successive rescue and the reemergence of problems, the capacity and will for further support diminished. The EU rescue of Greece and Ireland are also reminiscent of US attempts to rescue its banking system, with more and more money being thrown at the problem. The strategy was defective, preventing the creative destruction required to restore the system to health. The actions may have doomed the economy into a protracted period of low growth, laying the foundations for future problems.
At the time of the Greek bailout, the real question was: "If Euro 750 billion isn’t enough, what is?" Increasingly, markets fear that there may not be enough money, to solve the problem painlessly.
In 11 May 1931, the failure of a European bank – Austria’s Credit-Anstalt – was a pivotal event in the ensuing global financial crisis and the Great Depression. The failure set off a chain reaction and crisis in the European banking system. Some 80 years later, European sovereigns may be about to set off a similar sequence of events with unknown consequences. As Mark Twain observed history does not repeat, but it may rhyme.”
© 2011 Satyajit Das
Satyajit Das is the author of "Traders, Guns & Money: Knowns and Unknowns in the Dazzling World of Derivatives".